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Bugum

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fire
Subclass ofphysical phenomenon, combustion Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Has useroasting, cooking Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Has causecombustion Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Has effectthermal energy Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Immediate cause ofburned area, heat, ash Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Has characteristichot Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Unicode character🔥 Dɛmisim gbɛlima

Bugum anɛ dinɛ yiti naamid fʋ ya’a nɔk kutnam bɛɛ kuga nwɛ’ taaba, di anɛ bʋnsienam dammʋg ka bugum la'aŋid[1]. Di naamʋg anɛ pɛbisim dinɛ bɛ agɔla nɛ tʋʋlʋg kanɛ naamid bʋntʋguda ni.

Buntʋgʋda la yiti tʋlʋgnɛ ka bugum naam la’aŋ[2]. Yʋʋm pʋkʋdʋgin la, ba da yiti nɔknɛ kugpiel nɛ kɛbir ka gungum taba di ni nwɛ’ taaba ka bugum la’aŋ ka ba nɔki nyu’oe naan maal diib bɛɛ sɛn’ ni’im bɛɛ bʋnsɛn'ɛda.

ka bugum an si'em la zug, li tʋn'e nyaŋi la'aŋ bɛdegʋ ka nidib nɛ bʋnkɔnbid kɔ'ɔŋi ba nyɔɔr, ka li ya'a la'aŋi dit li tʋn'e ta'as ka la'ad bɛdegʋ san'am saŋa wʋsa. Bugum anɛ nimmua bʋn linɛ mɔr yɛla bɛdegʋ ken bʋnvʋlnam vʋm bɛllim dunia ni na. Yɛlsʋm linɛ ka bugum mɔr anɛ ye, li sʋŋid ka bʋnkɔnbid nɔbigid ka wɛkidi ba buudi sʋ'ʋŋa. Li yɛlbɛ'ɛd mɛ anɛ ye, li mɔr daʋŋ kennɛ ti vʋmin nɛ la'ad ni na, ka miligid pɛbisim, ka dian'ad Ku'om.[3] Bugum ya'a la'aŋ kanb tiis, satita'ar tʋn'e ni ka ka ku'om di'e ka teŋ la kɔn ka gbɛsim-gbɛsim.[4] Linɛ lɛn paas anɛ ye, tiis ya'a la'aŋ kanbid li mɔri nitrogen ken pɛbisʋgʋn na, amaa ka ka' wʋʋ potassium nɛ phosphorus banɛ nwɔdigi kpɛlim tampɛgilim ni ka kilim titan tɔ'ɔtɔ laa.[5][6] Nitrogen linɛ ka bugum naamid pɛbisʋgʋn la, sied titan pɔn'ɔsʋm bɛɛ kʋ'ʋlʋm ka li yuugid, ka teŋ la pɔn'ɔsʋm na nyaŋi lɛb na nitrogen ya'a bɛɛ li zin'igin ka bʋn linɛ nwɛn wʋʋ satansʋg nɛɛsim bɛɛ tiis banɛ wan biili wʋʋ clover nɛ peas bɛŋa banɛ an kansa kɛ ka li lieb ammonia.

Bugum anɛ yɛlkpan bʋnam anaasi la yinnɛ ka ninsaalib mɔri li tʋm ba'ar kaanbʋg tʋʋma, ka mɔr nyu'od mɔɔd kuob yɛla, ka mɔr dʋgʋt, ka mɔr maan tʋʋlʋg nɛ nɛɛsim, ka mɔr zanbin si'elnam, ka li mɛ tisid paŋ, ka mɔri nyɛɛn si'elnam, ka mɔr maan la'ad, ka mɔr nyu'od la'ayɔɔd, ka mɛ mɔr nyu'od bʋnkpiilʋŋ ka mɛ lɛn an zaba laʋk.

Di Pin'ilʋg

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Linɛ ka ti buon ye, "Bugum" la yinɛ kʋdʋmin na'asaal pian'ʋk kanɛ buon Fyr la ni na, ka ba na tʋn'e nyaŋi tuunli di nya'ar yi German dim pian'ʋk kanɛ ka ba buon ye fur ka li mɛ yi proto-indo-European pian'ʋk kanɛ buon perjos ka li nya'ar an paewr la ni na. Ban sɔbid bugum si'em nannana la da anɛ ala hali yʋma tusir nɛ kɔbisyi (1200) sa, amaa ba da pʋ sɔbidi li alaa ka li paae yʋma tusir nɛ kɔbisyuobu (1600) saŋa sa ka ba yʋ'ʋn sɔbidi li ye fier wʋʋ na'asaal kanɛ da ken sʋʋgin saŋa na la ( li nam kpɛlim bɛ ka sɔb ye fiery).[7]

Kʋdʋmin labaar

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yɛlkʋda banɛ naam

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Bugum yɛlkʋda banɛ naam gaad la da naam nɛ, ka tiis buudi bɛdegʋ yi Middle Ordovician saŋa linɛ an yʋma 470 million banɛ gaad la ni,[8] ka li kɛt ka ninsaal vʋm pɛbisim yʋ'ʋn naam agɔl wʋʋ li buudi nan zi' naam la, ka tiis banɛ yi teŋ paala ni la lieb bʋn bɛ'ɛdnam. Ka tʋʋm kaŋa ya'a duoe tʋʋg piinɛ atan' kɔbiga pʋʋgin (13%), li tʋn'e ta'as ka bugum tita'ar la'aŋ mɔɔd nɛ tiis.[9] Mɔɔgin bugum pin'il yiiga nɛ Late Silurian yɛlkʋda banɛ naam ni yʋma milliyɔnnam kɔbisnaasi nɛ pisi (420) banɛ gaad sa, ka li da anɛ saana tiis.[10] [11]Nɔgbannwa'asim linɛ da naam Late Devonian ya'a yi, bugum saana da pʋn dɛŋim bɛ nɛ.[12] Ninsaal vʋm pɛbisim linɛ laan giligid la, saŋa pamm linɛ sʋŋid ka bugum saana naam: ninsaal vʋm pɛbisim an yɛlkpan mɔɔgin bugum la'aŋir ni.[13] Saŋkanɛ ka mɔɔd ti tʋlʋg ka an bʋn linɛ tʋn'e bʋnkɔnbid bɛdegʋ la, bugum yʋ'ʋn da lieb bɛdegʋ yʋma ayuobʋ (6) ti paae yuma ayɔpɔi (7) million banɛ gaad sa;[14] nɛ'ɛŋa buudi kɛnɛ ka bugum yʋ'ʋn yadigid zin'is bɛdegʋ ni tɔ'ɔtɔ.[15] Bugum nɛ yʋ'ʋn tiing zin'is nwa, li tʋn'ʋn naamid suosʋma banɛ kɛt ka zin'ig kʋdigid, ka tʋʋlʋg bɛ ka li an sʋm tis bugum.[16]

Ninsaali nyaŋid mɔr bugum si'em

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Yiiga nidib mɔrim

Ya'ag kanɛ na nyaŋi zanl bɛɛ mɔr bugum da anɛ bʋn linɛ ka kʋdʋmin nidib da mɔri li di'em ka li tiak.[17] Bugum ya'a mɔr tʋʋlʋg nɛ nɛɛsim, li sʋŋid nɛ ka nidib nyaŋid dʋgʋdi ba diib, ala mɛn nɔɔ ka li sʋŋid ka kɛt ka diib sʋŋid niŋgbiŋ ka kʋʋd bʋnvʋl bɛ'ɛdnam banɛ bɛ diib ni ka ban'as sied.[18] Ka bugum walim bɛɛ tʋʋlʋg kanɛ bɛ la na sʋŋ ka nidib uos waad saŋa, ka li sʋŋidi ba ka ba nyaŋid bɛ zin'ibanɛ ma'ae bɛɛ ka waad bɛ. Bugum mɛ lɛn sʋŋid ka bʋnvʋlnam nyaŋidi bɛ ku'om zin'ig baba. Vɛɛnsʋg kasɛt linɛ kɛ ka ba baŋ ban mɔr bugum dʋgʋt diib la da anɛ yʋma 1 million linɛ gaad sa. Ka kasɛta kaŋa pa'al ye ba da mɔr bugum maal si'elnam hali yʋma 1 million linɛ gaad sa la.[19][20] Ka vɛɛnsʋg zin'isieba mɛ pa'al ye ba da mɔr tʋm nɛ yʋma tusa kɔbisnaasi banɛ gaad la sa (400,000).[21] Ka kasɛta linɛ tiing paae zin'is bɛdegʋ yʋma pisnu ti paae yʋma tusir kɔbʋg la (50 ti paae 100,000) pa'al ye, ba da pʋn mɔri li tʋm nɛ saŋkan la sa; ka linɛ an bʋn sʋŋ la anɛ ye pɛbisim da pu san'am nidibi bɛ zin'isi'a wʋsa saŋkan laa.[22] Ka bugum tʋʋma kpɛn ken tuon yim hali ka an sʋm, ka ba mɔri li maan bugum saana, ka mɔr tɔn'ɔsid mɔɔgin kɔnbid din yi yʋma tusir kɔbis banɛ gaad la sa.[23] Teŋ sieba ni ba da mɔr bugum ka li an bʋn linɛ ka ba mɔri tɛɛgid nidib tʋbir ka namisdi ba, ba tʋʋmbɛ'ɛd zug, ka li kasɛt linɛ pa'an sida anɛ ye ba tʋn'e nɔki li kʋ, ba mɛ lɛn tʋn'e zaŋ tʋbtɛɛgir la'ad wʋʋ kut sa'alaas ka kabig ku'om niŋi li pʋʋgin, ka kpa'ae kpaam niŋi li ni, ka nɔki li zuol bugumin ka li dʋg tʋlʋg hali ka zaŋ tʋbzian'asim sɔb la lɔs sa'alaa la pʋʋgin ka li wʋm o ka o namis o tʋʋmbɛ'ɛd la yɛla.

Ninsaalib nya'aŋ mɔrim yɛla

Bugum tʋʋm zuoe zina nwa’. Ti ya’a ye ti gɔs titʋ’a ninsaal kanɛ bɛ duniya wʋsa mɔr bugum maan siel daar wʋsa, ka nyaŋi tɔn’ɔe li. Banɛ ban’ad lɔɔm banɛ tʋlʋgit la mɔr nɛ bʋgʋm tʋm saŋa wʋsaa la, ban mɔri ba lɔɔm la kɛn la. Thermal power stations mɔr bugum ka li kilimit na’asaa bugum tis nɛ ninsaalib bɛdigʋ ka li yinɛ ban na la’aŋ bugum saana bɛɛ pɛbis mɛŋir bɛɛ kpaam, ka li tʋʋlik la na nyaŋi dʋk kuom ka li lɛ’ɛgi kilim walim ka dɔlis la’a sieba nii na nyaŋi tʋm tʋʋma bɛdigʋ.

Bugum tʋʋma zaba ni

Ban mɔr bʋgʋm zaba zin’isin la da pin’il ka li yʋʋg hali. Bugum da kɛ ka ba nyaŋi maal kunt zaba la’ad la wʋsa. Byzantine kuomin pʋlʋs la da mɔr bugum zabid nɛ ba taaba nɛ anriŋ titada.

Malifʋ zɔ’ɔm da pin’ili bɛ China la da ka ba maal zaba la’ad banɛ  yit bugum pielim yʋʋm tusir (1000 CE) saŋa ka li kɛ ka ba maal zaba la’ad banɛ yinɛ malifʋ zɔ’ɔm la ni na.

Kʋdʋmin banɛ da lɔbid bugum pielim la da paas soogia namin zab First World War, German zabzabidib la da nɔkili tʋm yiiga zabi gɛɛs nɛ French zabzabidib bɛ Verdun baba yʋʋm tusir, kɔbʋswai nɛ piinɛ anu, nwadis ayi’ (February 1915) la ni.[24] li ya’aŋ ka ba nyaŋi nɔkili tabil zaba lɔnamin duniya zab kanɛ da paas ayi’ la ni.

Nʋ’ʋgin bombs linɛ la’aŋid da kɛna die gilaas kɔliba, ka li nya’aŋ ka ba da buon ye Molotov cocktails, ka li da anɛ Spanish Civil War saŋa yʋʋm tusir, kɔbʋswai nɛ pistan’ (1930s) la ni. Zaba kan la ni ba da yiya nɛ nʋ’ʋgin bombs la zab nɛ Guernica by Fascist Italian nɛ Nazi German pɛbisimin sɔɔgia banɛ kɛna ye ba sʋŋ nɛ Franco's  tɛŋ nidib.

Axis nɛ Allies da lɔb bomb gbila nwa’ dunia wʋsa zab kanɛ da paas ayi’ la (Second World War), ba da lɔb nɛ Coventry, Tokyo, Rotterdam, London, Hamburg nɛ Dresden; tɛn’ɛs ayi’ banɛ bɛ gbinnin la, ba da nyʋɔe nɛ bʋgʋm gilig tɛŋ ban gbiligʋ tɛnsʋk ka nyaŋ teŋ bama, ban da mɔr bugum la zug.[25] United States pɛbisimin sɔɔgianam la mɛ da kɔk bomb la zab nɛ Japanese zabzabidib, nwadis biela zab tita’ar la nya’aŋ, ka da sa’am tɛnpʋʋg la wʋsa,  ka ba da nɔk daad nɛ paper mɛɛ ba Yanam la. Bomb kanɛ an kuom ka ba bʋon napalm ka ba da noki zab zaba yʋʋm tusir, kɔbʋswai, nɛ pisnaasi nɛ anaasi, nwadis ayɔpɔi ni (July 1944), Second World War nya’aŋ la, ka li lɛɛ nan pʋ yi paalʋ na nɛ Vietnam zaba la ni da kɛna ka ba nya’an baŋi li.[26]

Bugum zanllim

Tinamɛ na nɔk bugum maal ka li an biela, tinamɛ bɔɔd ye li zɛm siem bɛn ka pʋ dit nɛ bugum pielimm amaa, sieba nan mɔr bugum pielim tʋmmi ba tʋʋma. Ban anɛ banɛ nyɛligid kʋnt nam la nɛ. Sieba mi’i bugum dʋgʋb titʋ’a, ka mɔr baŋir kanɛ ka ba na nyaŋi baŋ ban na nyʋ’ʋeli siem, nyaŋi sie tʋʋlig la , bugum pielim la nɛ nyɔn’ɔs linɛ dɔl bugum la; ba mi’ ban na niŋ siem lʋs bugum la ka pɛbisim da kpiisi li, ka li bɛi paae ban ti bɔɔdi li saŋa sia wʋsa; ba gaŋid ban na dɔlis siem lus bugum la, ka mɛ’ zanguom gbiligi lus bugum la tɛnsʋk ka di an bugum la dɔɔg, ka maan dɔɔd la sɛn’ɛd diib, bɛɛ ban maan la’ad zin’is sieba kuosid la ka ba mɔr bugum tʋʋlig la nyɛligid la’adi maan. Yɛlbama vɛnligi pa’al gbana bɛdigʋ banɛ ka ba sɔbi kati wa’ae banɛ kunt kuntnam tʋʋma yela la ni, ka li pa’an ban mɔri li gbɛɛd mɔɔgin tʋm siem, bɛɛ soogianam mɔri li ba sʋak zin’is nɛ ba ya’an bugun tʋʋma.

Li paŋ la nyaŋidi tʋm tʋʋm banɛ mɔr nyɔɔd

Ba ya’a nyʋ’ɔ bugum bɛɛ bʋntʋʋlig, li zaŋid lak kanɛ nyʋ’ɔ la tiaki li ka li kilim tʋʋligi mɔr paŋ; ba da pin’ili mɔr daadi la’aŋid bugum hali ka gbana da nan kae na sɔb yɛlkʋda digilɛ.[27] International Energy Agency pa’al ye dunia la’ad banɛ mɔr paŋ la, kɔbiga pʋʋgin, pisnii (80%) yinɛ la’ad banɛ na nyaŋi nɔki nyʋ’ɔ bugum ni ka ba sieba an petroleum, wina’am pɛbisim nɛ bugum saana, yʋʋma bɛdigʋ pʋʋgin.[28] bugum tʋʋligi la’as ka ba buon power station la, ba mɔri li tʋligit kuom, ka li walim la kɛŋ kpɛ’ɛ kʋnt sia ni. Li na kɛ ka kʋnt ka giligi dɔlis bugum wiing ni, ka li tis nidib na’asaa bugum.[29] ba mɛ mɔr bugum tɔmisid kʋnt nam, li tʋʋlig la zug, ka mɛ lɛn mɔri li ka li tʋm tʋʋma bɛ kʋnt banɛ si’isid taaba ni pʋʋgin bɛɛ yiŋ, ka li kɛt ka ba tʋligid.

Kʋnt nam ya’a nɛɛm taaba, nɛ tʋʋlig pʋʋgin, li na pigis. Ka ba buon dinɛ pigis la ye clinker, di ya’a nan pʋ nyɛligɛ, amaa di ya’a nyɛlig di kilimid nɛ tampɛligim.

La'abanɛ la'asi an bugum

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Dinɛ la’as

Bugum naamid siem anɛ bʋn dinɛ la’aŋid ya’a la’as nɛ bʋnlinɛ na nyaŋi bʋa’si-bʋa’s li, ka ba la’as taaba tiaki ba mɛŋi tʋlig, ka pɛbisim (carbon dioxide) nɛ kuom yina.[30] ba buon tiakir kaŋa ye combustion reaction, ka di ka’ nɛ bʋn yinne kɛt ka bugum la’aŋida, ka lɛɛ anɛ la’a sia ɛɛnti gɛndig o tiraan.[30] baa bʋn linɛ bʋa’sid dinɛ la’aŋid la ka li nyaan la’aŋid la an pɛbis kanɛ ka ti vʋ’ʋsid (oxygen) la, bʋnsieba mɛ bɛ na nyaŋi tʋm tʋʋm kan mɛn. Ba yinne anɛ chlorine trifluoride dinɛ na nyaŋi la’as titan ka bugum la’aŋ.[31]

Bugum na la’aŋ, fʋ ya’a nɔk lak kanɛ la’aŋid bugum la’as nɛ dinɛ na nyaŋi bʋa’si li, wʋʋ pɛbis kanɛ ka ti vʋ’ʋsid la bɛɛ o taaba, ya’a la’as ka tʋʋlig biela bɛi anina, ka tʋʋlig la mɔr paŋ biela gat pɛbisim la bɛɛ la’aŋir lauk la, ka tiakir nyaŋi naam ba pʋʋgin. Ba buoni nwa’ ye bugum la’aŋir suor bɛɛ fire tetrahedron. Bugum ku nyaŋi la’aŋɛ, yɛlbama ya’a pʋ la’as taaba ka li zɛnmisɛ. Bugum na la’aŋ, fʋ ya’a la’as kuokanɛ la’aŋid bugum wʋʋ petrol la nɛ pɛbisim kanɛ kati vʋ’ʋsid la (oxygen) ka ba zɛm taaba, ba ya’a pʋ zɛm taaba, bugum la kʋ la’aŋɛ. La’ad banɛ laŋid bugum nɛ pɛbis kanɛ vʋʋsid la ya’a la’as taaba, saŋa sieba, bɔɔd yɛ fʋ paas dinɛ na kɛ ka bugum la la’aŋ tɔ’ɔtɔ’ɔ ka ba buon catalyst, din pʋ dit bugumin  la, ka lɛɛ paasid nɛ la’ad banɛ kɛt ka bugum la’aŋid la ni, ka di kɛt ka bugum la la’aŋ tɔ’ɔtɔ’ɔ.

Bugum ya’a la’aŋ, bugum la la’asid taaba ka nyaŋidi mɔri di mɛŋ tʋʋlig, dɔlisid nɛ din na kpɛn kɛn tuoni yisid tʋʋlig la. Bugum la tɔn’ɛ nobig, pɛbisim ya’a b anina ka dinɛ la’aŋid la mɛ bɛ’.

Dinɛ la’asid nɛ bugum la’ad ka li la’aŋid la ya’a an pɛbis kanɛ ka ti vʋ’ʋsid la, ka o pɛbis taaba mɛ gilig, ka mɔr tɛbisim paŋ bɛɛ paŋ kan paŋ bɛɛ paŋ kanɛ giligid la buudi bɛi li pʋʋgin, li na maal pɛbis tʋʋlig, ka yis bun linɛ la’aŋid nam, ka vɛ’ɛg pɛbisim kɛn’ bugum la ni na. Paŋ kanɛ vɛ’ɛgid la’ad tɛbisa sigisid tɛŋin la ya’a kae, bugum la mɛŋ na yis la’a sieba banɛ la’aŋid nɛ pɛbisim banɛ pʋ la’aŋid bugum li pʋʋgin na, ka pɛbis kanɛ ka ti vʋ’ʋsid la pʋ paasɛ, linzug, bugum la na kpi’is. Nwa’ yela, li tɔi nɛ bugum na nyaŋi la’aŋ na’asaa silig kanɛ kɛn biel-biel.[32][33]Amaa, pɛbisim la ya’a dɔl nɛ suor sia kpɛ’ɛ ka ka’a li yinɛ na’asaa silig la mɛŋ tʋʋlig nii, li tɔn’e la’aŋ.

Ti tɔn’e kpiis bugus ka li yinɛ tinamɛ na widig bɛɛ yis bugum la’ad la ka ba da si’is taaba. Ti ya’a gɔs bugum pielim dinɛ yit gas dug la nina, dinɛ ka ba tɔ’ɔŋ stove-top burner. Ti na dɔlis nɛ suor bama kpiis bugum nwa’:

·        Yɔɔg gas dʋg la ka di da yis bʋn dinɛ laŋid la naa;

·        Lusim bugum pielim la nyain, li na widig pɛbisim banɛ la’aŋid bugum la;

·        buom inert gas wʋʋ carbon dioxide, ka li na widig pɛbis kanɛ mɔr bugum la;

·        Niŋim kuom, ka li na ma’ae ka tʋʋlig linɛ kɛt ka bugum la dit la gaad (fʋ tɔn’e limis bɛɛ fʋʋs pɛbisim bɛdigʋ kpa’ bugum pielim la, ka tʋʋlig kanɛ la’as nɛ gas la la’aŋ la na widig); bɛɛ

·        Fʋ ya’a niŋ tiim ka bugum la kʋ zɛɛlim ya’asa ka na kpiŋ wʋʋ Halon (tɛŋ sieba kadi li kuosug yʋʋm tusayi’, nɛ pisi nɛ atan’, 2023). Fʋ ya’a niŋ bugum la tiim nwa’ di sied bugum la diib nɛ ka li kpiŋid.

Fʋ ya’a bɔɔd ye fʋ paas bugum paŋ, fʋ on paasi li tʋʋlig la. Fʋ na dɔl suor sia maal nwa’ anɛ fʋ na nɔk dinɛ la’aŋid bugum, nɛ dinɛ gɛndigid ka di la’aŋid la la’as taaba ka ba zɛm taaba. Fʋ ya’a paasid nɛ dinɛ la’aŋid bugum la, fʋ on kɛ ka ba zɛm ka mɛ paas bugum la tʋʋlig ka bugum la mɛŋ tʋʋlig zalli li ka li dit bɛɛ fʋ na paas bʋn linɛ na kɛ ka dinɛ la’aŋid bugum la nɛ dinɛ gɛndigid ka bugun nyaan la’aŋid la ka ba la’as taaba la’aŋ tɔ’ɔtɔ’ɔ.

Bugum pielim

Gbanvɛɛnsa

[dɛmisim gbɛlima | dɛmisimi din yi zin'isiana]
  1. ↑ https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/747-what-is-fire
  2. ↑ https://www.britannica.com/science/fire-combustion
  3. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire#cite_ref-5
  4. ↑ https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0004-5608
  5. ↑ https://www.nytimes.com/1990/08/14/science/science-watch-burning-plants-adding-to-nitrogen.htmlhttps://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331https://web.archive.org/web/20240527111406/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/08/14/science/science-watch-burning-plants-adding-to-nitrogen.html
  6. ↑ https://aessoil.com/how-do-wildfires-affect-soil/https://web.archive.org/web/20240527111411/https://aessoil.com/how-do-wildfires-affect-soil/
  7. ↑ "Fire". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2024-05-27. Retrieved 2023-03-24.
  8. ↑ Wellman, C. H.; Gray, J. (2000). "The microfossil record of early land plants". Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 355 (1398): 717–31, discussion 731–2. doi:10.1098/rstb.2000.0612. PMC 1692785. PMID 10905606.
  9. ↑ Jones, Timothy P.; Chaloner, William G. (1991). "Fossil charcoal, its recognition and palaeoatmospheric significance". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 97 (1–2): 39–50. Bibcode:1991PPP....97...39J. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(91)90180-Y.
  10. ↑ Glasspool, I.J.; Edwards, D.; Axe, L. (2004). "Charcoal in the Silurian as evidence for the earliest wildfire". Geology. 32 (5): 381–383. Bibcode:2004Geo....32..381G. doi:10.1130/G20363.1.
  11. ↑ Scott, AC; Glasspool, IJ (2006). "The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (29): 10861–5. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10310861S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0604090103. PMC 1544139. PMID 16832054.
  12. ↑ Scott, AC; Glasspool, IJ (2006). "The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (29): 10861–5. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10310861S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0604090103. PMC 1544139. PMID 16832054.
  13. ↑ Bowman, D. M. J. S.; Balch, J. K.; Artaxo, P.; Bond, W. J.; Carlson, J. M.; Cochrane, M. A.; d'Antonio, C. M.; Defries, R. S.; Doyle, J. C.; Harrison, S. P.; Johnston, F. H.; Keeley, J. E.; Krawchuk, M. A.; Kull, C. A.; Marston, J. B.; Moritz, M. A.; Prentice, I. C.; Roos, C. I.; Scott, A. C.; Swetnam, T. W.; Van Der Werf, G. R.; Pyne, S. J. (2009). "Fire in the Earth system". Science. 324 (5926): 481–4. Bibcode:2009Sci...324..481B. doi:10.1126/science.1163886. PMID 19390038. S2CID 22389421. Archived from the original on 2024-05-27. Retrieved 2024-01-26.
  14. ↑ Retallack, Gregory J. (1997). "Neogene expansion of the North American prairie". PALAIOS. 12 (4): 380–90. Bibcode:1997Palai..12..380R. doi:10.2307/3515337. JSTOR 3515337.
  15. ↑ Bowman, D. M. J. S.; Balch, J. K.; Artaxo, P.; Bond, W. J.; Carlson, J. M.; Cochrane, M. A.; d'Antonio, C. M.; Defries, R. S.; Doyle, J. C.; Harrison, S. P.; Johnston, F. H.; Keeley, J. E.; Krawchuk, M. A.; Kull, C. A.; Marston, J. B.; Moritz, M. A.; Prentice, I. C.; Roos, C. I.; Scott, A. C.; Swetnam, T. W.; Van Der Werf, G. R.; Pyne, S. J. (2009). "Fire in the Earth system". Science. 324 (5926): 481–4. Bibcode:2009Sci...324..481B. doi:10.1126/science.1163886. PMID 19390038. S2CID 22389421. Archived from the original on 2024-05-27. Retrieved 2024-01-26.
  16. ↑ Bowman, D. M. J. S.; Balch, J. K.; Artaxo, P.; Bond, W. J.; Carlson, J. M.; Cochrane, M. A.; d'Antonio, C. M.; Defries, R. S.; Doyle, J. C.; Harrison, S. P.; Johnston, F. H.; Keeley, J. E.; Krawchuk, M. A.; Kull, C. A.; Marston, J. B.; Moritz, M. A.; Prentice, I. C.; Roos, C. I.; Scott, A. C.; Swetnam, T. W.; Van Der Werf, G. R.; Pyne, S. J. (2009). "Fire in the Earth system". Science. 324 (5926): 481–4. Bibcode:2009Sci...324..481B. doi:10.1126/science.1163886. PMID 19390038. S2CID 22389421. Archived from the original on 2024-05-27. Retrieved 2024-01-26.
  17. ↑ Gowlett, J. A. J. (2016). "The discovery of fire by humans: a long and convoluted process". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 371 (1696): 20150164. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0164. PMC 4874402. PMID 27216521.
  18. ↑ Gowlett, J. A. J.; Wrangham, R. W. (2013). "Earliest fire in Africa: towards the convergence of archaeological evidence and the cooking hypothesis". Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 48 (1): 5–30. doi:10.1080/0067270X.2012.756754. S2CID 163033909.
  19. ↑ O'Carroll, Eoin (5 April 2012). "Were Early Humans Cooking Their Food a Million Years Ago?". ABC News. Archived from the original on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 10 January 2020. Early humans harnessed fire as early as a million years ago, much earlier than previously thought, suggests evidence unearthed in a cave in South Africa.
  20. ↑ Francesco Berna; et al. (May 15, 2012). "Microstratigraphic evidence of in situ fire in the Acheulean strata of Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape province, South Africa". PNAS. 109 (20): E1215–E1220. doi:10.1073/pnas.1117620109. PMC 3356665. PMID 22474385.
  21. ↑ Bowman, D. M. J. S.; et al. (2009). "Fire in the Earth system". Science. 324 (5926): 481–84. Bibcode:2009Sci...324..481B. doi:10.1126/science.1163886. PMID 19390038. S2CID 22389421. Archived from the original on 2024-05-27. Retrieved 2024-01-26.
  22. ↑ Bowman, D. M. J. S.; et al. (2009). "Fire in the Earth system". Science. 324 (5926): 481–84. Bibcode:2009Sci...324..481B. doi:10.1126/science.1163886. PMID 19390038. S2CID 22389421. Archived from the original on 2024-05-27. Retrieved 2024-01-26
  23. ↑ Bowman, D. M. J. S.; et al. (2009). "Fire in the Earth system". Science. 324 (5926): 481–84. Bibcode:2009Sci...324..481B. doi:10.1126/science.1163886. PMID 19390038. S2CID 22389421. Archived from the original on 2024-05-27. Retrieved 2024-01-26
  24. ↑ "Flamethrower in action". nzhistory.govt.nz. Archived from the original on 2024-05-27. Retrieved 2023-11-02.
  25. ↑ David P. Barash; Charles P. Webel (10 July 2008). Peace and Conflict Studies. SAGE. p. 365. ISBN 978-1-4129-6120-2. Archived from the original on 27 May 2024. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
  26. ↑ Guillaume, Marine (2016-12-01). "Napalm in US Bombing Doctrine and Practice, 1942-1975" (PDF). The Asia-Pacific Journal. 14 (23). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-09-04.
  27. ↑ Sterrett, Frances S., ed. (1995). Alternative fuels and the environment. Boca Raton: Lewis. ISBN 978-0-87371-978-0.
  28. ↑ (October 2022), "World Energy Outlook 2022 Archived 2022-10-27 at the Wayback Machine", IEA.
  29. ↑ "How electricity is generated". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2023-11-02.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "What is fire?". New Scientist. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023. Retrieved November 5, 2022.
  31. ↑ Lowe, Derek (February 26, 2008). "Sand Won't Save You This Time". Science. Archived from the original on February 19, 2023. Retrieved November 5, 2022.
  32. ↑ NASA Johnson (29 August 2008). "Ask Astronaut Greg Chamitoff: Light a Match!". Archived from the original on 2021-12-11. Retrieved 30 December 2016 – via YouTube.
  33. ↑ Inglis-Arkell, Esther (8 March 2011). "How does fire behave in zero gravity?". Archived from the original on 13 November 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2016.

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Tuon kariŋ

[dɛmisim gbɛlima | dɛmisimi din yi zin'isiana]
  • Pyne, Stephen J. Fire : a brief history (University of Washington Press, 2001).
    • Pyne, Stephen J. World fire : the culture of fire on earth (1995) online
    • Pyne, Stephen J. Tending fire : coping with America's wildland fires (2004) online
    • Pyne, Stephen J. Awful splendour : a fire history of Canada (2007) online
    • Pyne, Stephen J. Burning bush : a fire history of Australia (1991) online
    • Pyne, Stephen J. Between Two Fires: A Fire History of Contemporary America (2015)
    • Pyne, Stephen J. California: A Fire Survey (2016)
  • Safford, Hugh D., et al. "Fire ecology of the North American Mediterranean-climate zone." in Fire ecology and management: Past, present, and future of US forested ecosystems (2021): 337–392. re California and its neighbors online
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