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Tampiig

Paasim tɔ'ɔŋir suoya
Di yinɛ Wikipiidia
rock
Subclass ofnatural material Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Has useaggregate Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Made from materialrock forming minerals, mineral Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Studied bypetrology, rock mechanics Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Has characteristicchemical composition, texture, permeability Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Opposite ofsoil Dɛmisim gbɛlima

Zamis kanɛ gɔsid dunia laꞌad nɛ kuga yɛl la paꞌal ye, tampiins (bɛɛ kuga) anɛ dinɛ ka Winaꞌam maal ka li anɛ laꞌabanɛ mɔr tɛbisim ka kpi'em ka ba buon minerals bɛɛ mineraloid la yaꞌa laꞌas taaba. Tampiis bɛ kɔnꞌɔb-kɔnꞌɔb ka li anɛ laꞌad banɛ laꞌasi kilimi di la ka ba nɔkidi baŋi di li, nɛ din gɛndig si'em, nɛ din kilim si'em-si'em. Tampiins paas nɛ teŋgbaŋ laꞌad banɛ ka sɔꞌ na nyaŋi gbanꞌe nɛ nuꞌus, ka ba buon crust la, nɛ di pʋʋgin, ka di yiꞌiŋ gbɛɛsim nɛ tampiing kanɛ nyɛligidi bɛ tɛŋ tɛŋir asthenosphere pʋʋgin. Tampiis zamisig yɛla mɔr zamisbibisi di pʋʋgin, ba sieba an petrology nɛ mineralogy. Di tunꞌe gɔsidnɛ tampiins banɛ bɛ teŋgbaŋ zug bɛɛ di tunꞌe an planetary geology dinɛ ka ba zamisid tampiins nɛ laꞌad banɛ bɛi pɛbisim zug.

Tampiis mɔr kɔnꞌɔb-kɔnꞌɔb atanꞌ: igneous tampiis, sedimentary tampiis nɛ metamorphic tampiis. Igneous rock la maan si'em an tampintʋʋla bɛɛ magma yaꞌa maꞌae, bɛɛ teŋ la gbinin yaꞌ laꞌaŋ bugum dʋꞌ agɔl na, maꞌae tɛngbaŋ zug bɛɛ kɔlis pʋʋg. Sedimentary rock la maan si'em yit nɛ kugbaanlig yaꞌa laꞌas taaba ka ba buon diagenesis bɛɛ lithification la, din yitnɛ tampiins banɛ pʋn dɛŋi bɛ yaꞌa bʋas biel-biel, laꞌas taaba kilim. Metamorphic rock maani yit nɛ tampiis banɛ pʋn bɛ sa, yaꞌa tʋlig hali ka lɛɛ pʋ nyaŋi nyɛlig wala saa.

Ninsaalib banɛ da bɛ dunia pin'ilugin nɛ kudumin sa la nɔk tampiinsi maal si'elnam hali. Saŋkaŋa ka ba buon kuga yʋʋm la, ka ba da mɔr kuga maan laꞌad bɛdigʋ. Ba da mɔr kuga mɛɛd yaꞌ nɛ mɛɛb banɛ ka ba da mɛɛd wʋsa. Sanlima nɛ kʋnt sieba gaansʋg da pinꞌilya ka ba yisit kʋnt nam la yit tampiins la pʋʋgin. Naꞌasaasɔɔng kɛya ka ba nyaŋi maal laꞌad sieba ka ba nwɛn wʋʋ tampiinsnɛ, ka ba yinne an concrete.

zamisig

[dɛmisim gbɛlima | dɛmisimi din yi zin'isiana]

Geology anɛ zamis kanɛ gɔsid dunia nɛ di laꞌad yela, ka tampiingi maan siꞌem mɛ paas anina. Petrology anɛ zamis kanɛ gɔsid tampiins la yi zinꞌig sia na. Mineralogy anɛ zamis kanɛ gɔsid laꞌad banɛ laꞌasi kilim tampiing la. Ban zamisid tampiing nɛ dinɛ bɛɛ li pʋʋgin la kɛ ka ba baŋ dunia da pinꞌil siꞌem, ninsaali di pinꞌil siꞌem, nɛ laꞌad maalig nɛ naꞌasaasɔɔng dinɛ ka ninsaalib yʋꞌʋn mɔr la.[1]

Dunia laꞌad zamisig yela nii, tampiins zamisig nɛ ban yi zinꞌig siꞌa na, mɛ paas anina, ba da pinꞌil tampiing zamisig nɛ 19th century saŋa sa. Plutonism da an zamis kanɛ ka ba da zamisid sankan la, nɛ ban ti vɛnꞌɛsi nyɛ radioactive decay yʋʋm tusir, kɔbisnii nɛ piswai nɛ ayʋobʋ (1896) la ni ka ba yʋꞌʋn pinꞌili kaanl tampiins yʋʋma. Zamis kanɛ an plate tectonics la da pinꞌil nɛ 20th century.[2]

Buudi

[dɛmisim gbɛlima | dɛmisimi din yi zin'isiana]

Tampiins yinɛ laꞌad banɛ buri-bur, an banꞌalig-banꞌalig yaꞌa tʋn fɔɔli laꞌas taaba nɛ paŋ.[3]  Tampiins siꞌeba mɔr mineraloids, dinɛ kpiꞌem, ka wan wʋʋ volcanic glass,[4]  ka lɛɛ pʋ tʋn taaba fɔɔli. Laꞌad banɛ bɛ tampiing ni la zuoe zɛm siꞌem an yine tampiing la maal siꞌem.

Tampiins bɛdigʋ mɔr silicate minerals, dinɛ ka silica tetrahedra paasi di pʋʋgin wan crystal lattice, ka mɛ len mɔr laꞌad la yinne, pʋdigir atanꞌ pʋʋgin nɛ earth's crust kɔbiga pʋʋgin, piswai nɛ anu (95%).[5] Dinɛ an silica bɛ tampiing ni la nɛ laꞌad banɛ bɛ di pʋʋgin paꞌan tampiing la yʋꞌʋr nɛ din an siꞌem.[6]

Tampiins mɔr buudi-buudi ka di yinɛ laꞌad banɛ bɛ li pʋʋgin la an siꞌem, pɛbisim bɛɛ kuom na nyaŋi kpɛꞌɛ di pʋʋgin, din saalim siꞌem bɛn, nɛ di labisim zɛm siꞌem. Yɛlbama paꞌanɛ tampiing la dɔlis suor siꞌa maal.[4] Yʋʋma zuligid la, tampiins na nyaŋi tiꞌak buudi yinne lɛb buudi yinne dinɛ ka banɛ zamis buon ye rock cycle. Tiꞌasik kaŋa kɛ ka tampiins buudi atanꞌ la bɛ: igneous, sedimentary nɛ metamorphic.

Buudi atanꞌ bama pʋdig nɛ zinꞌis bɛdigʋ yaꞌas. Tampiins nwaꞌ ɛɛnti laꞌas taabaa la anɛ yinne. Laꞌad banɛ maali ba la yaꞌa na paas bɛɛ siꞌe, ba ɛɛnti tiak nɛ yi buudi yinne kilim buudi yinne; tampiing yinne wʋsa bɛ di kɔnꞌ ka sɔꞌ na nyaŋi baki li nɛ li taaba, ka laꞌasidi tiꞌasidi kilimid buudi siꞌa. Linzugɔ, tampiing wʋsa nyɛ o yʋꞌʋr siem yinɛ lin maal biꞌel-biꞌel siꞌem kilimi li.[7]

Igneous rock

Igneous rock (linɛ yi Latin sɔb igneus ni, ka di gbin an bugum, yit ignis ka di gbin an bugum)[8] maan siꞌem anɛ dinɛ ka ba buon lava bɛɛ magma, kuga yaꞌa tʋligi nyɛligi laꞌas taaba ka lɛbi kʋdigi gbanꞌae taaba. Magma la yinɛ tampiing kanɛ pʋn bɛ saꞌ yaꞌa nyɛligi bɛ tɛngbaŋ la pʋʋg, ka ba buon mantle bɛɛ crust la. Tampiing nyɛligir yitnɛ yela atanꞌ bama yinne nina: tʋʋligi na nɔbigid, laꞌad banɛ muk taaba kugur la pʋʋk la tɛbisim nɛ li paŋ yaꞌa siꞌe, bɛɛ ba vurugnɛ tiak zinꞌig.[9]

Igneous rocks pʋdig nɛ zinꞌis ayiꞌ:

·        Plutonic bɛɛ intrusive maanɛ yit magma yaꞌa maꞌae ka laꞌas taaba tɛngbaŋ zug. Di titʋʋli yinne an granite.

·        Volcanic bɛɛ extrusive rocks yitnɛ magma dinɛ laꞌasid taaba la yaꞌa an lava bɛɛ fragmental ejecta, ka laꞌasi kilim pumice bɛɛ basalt.[4]

Magma mɔr silica bɛdigʋ, di yaꞌ dʋt tɛngbaŋ zug, ka ba buoni li ye magma differentiation. Nwaꞌ maan ka li yinɛ minerals la yaꞌa pʋ mɔr silica bɛdigʋ ka li yiti di pʋʋgin naa, di yaꞌa ɛɛnti pinꞌili maꞌaed la (Bowen's reaction series), nɛ magma la nyɛligid crustal rock siꞌeba banɛ ka di dɔlli bani gat la (country rock), ka crustal rock mɛ mɔr silica bɛdigʋ. Silica anɛ linɛ an yɛlkpan ka ba nɔkidi baŋid igneous rock buudi la.[6] ka dinɛ lɛn paas an alkali metal oxides ka mɛ an nimmua laʋk.[10]

Igneous rocks la faanꞌɛ paalʋ siꞌa Earth's crust pʋʋgin anɛ kɔbiga pʋʋgin, pisyʋobʋ nɛ anuꞌ (65%). Nwaꞌ pʋʋgin, pʋdigir pisyʋobʋ nɛ ayʋobʋ, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (66%) anɛ basalt nɛ gabbro, kɔbiga pʋʋgin, piinɛ ayʋobʋ (16%) anɛ granite, ka piinɛ ayɔpɔi, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (17%) an granodiorite nɛ diorite. 0.6% maꞌa an syenite ka 0.3% mɛ an ultramafic. Oceanic crust la mɛ mɔr piswai nɛ awai, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (99%) an basalt, dinɛ an igneous rock, ka mafic bɛɛ li pʋʋgin. Granite nɛ li wannim, ka ba buon granitoids, n faanꞌe zinꞌig continental crust ni.[11][12]

Sedimentary rock

Sedimentary rocks la maan siꞌem tɛngbaŋ zug anɛ tampiins banɛ pʋn bɛ ya, nɛ minerals, nɛ bʋnvʋlsiꞌeba[13] yaꞌa laꞌas taaba naalim ka ba sieba mɛ gbilim ka siꞌeba mɛ laꞌas kɔlis gbina ni. Nwaꞌ kɛt ka clastic sediments (kug baanꞌlig) bɛɛ mɔɔd nɛ bʋnvʋlsiꞌeba (detritus) laꞌasid taaba ganꞌalim, ka pɛbisim kanɛ bɛ li pʋʋgin la yi ka basi li. Di na tʋʋns taaba ka tʋʋlig biꞌela mɛ kpɛnꞌɛ li tɛnsʋk ka li laꞌas taaba (diagenesis). [4][14]

Tampiins banɛ pʋn bɛ sa ɛɛnti buri-bur, ka di anɛ kuom zii li kɛn ka di nwɛꞌɛd taaba la yela, ka kuom bɛɛ sisiem bɛɛ ice laꞌasiba zii kɛŋ laꞌasi ba taaba zinꞌi siꞌeba. [4]Sedimentary rocks  la diꞌe paalʋ siꞌa crust la pʋʋgin anɛ ayɔpɔi nɛ li pʋdigir awai, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (7.9%), ka pisnii nɛ ayi, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (82%) an shales, ka ayʋobʋ, pʋdigid kɔbiga pʋʋgin (6%) an limestone, ka piinɛ ayi, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (12%) an sandstone nɛ arkoses.[12] Sedimentary rocks mɔr fossils li pʋʋgi. Sedimentary rocks la maan siꞌem yitnɛ diinlig bɛɛ tɛbisim pʋʋgin, ka paꞌae paꞌae nɛ taaba zug nɛ fɔɔli, ka ba lɛn buoni ba ye stratified rocks.[15]

Sedimentary rocks banɛ nwaꞌasi laꞌas taaba mɛ mɔr bʋʋdi-bʋʋdi ka ba gɔsid nɛ ba labisim zɛm siꞌem bɛn. Ban ɛɛnti buri-bur la, dinɛ pɔɔdi gat anɛ yaꞌad bʋʋlig, ka linɛ dɔl an tanbiins baanlig, tintanbiinsig nɛ zigi. Siꞌeba mɔr cobbles nɛ boulders makidi gɔsid.[16]

Metamorphic rock

Metamorphic rocks la maan siꞌem anɛ tampiins buudi—sedimentary rock, igneous rock bɛɛ metamorphic rock kʋda banɛ pʋn bɛ sa—yaꞌa mugus taaba ka tʋlig, ka li tʋʋlim la mɔr paŋi gat tʋʋlig kanɛ da maal tampiins ban buudi la. Ba buon nwaꞌ ye metamorphism, ka di gbin an "lin na tiꞌaki li aansim". Li kɛt ka kuga nwa nindaa tiꞌakid ka len kaꞌ din daa an siꞌem yaꞌasɛ. Tampiing kanɛ tiaki kili o la, ba buon ye protolith, tiꞌakidi kilimid laꞌad siꞌeba kɔnꞌɔb-kɔnꞌɔb bɛɛ dɔlisid din ɛɛnti nyɛlig la ni.[4] Tʋʋlig kanɛ maan nwaꞌ la mɔr paŋi gat tʋʋlig kanɛ bɛ tɛngbaŋ zug: tʋʋlig la gat kɔbiga nɛ pisnu kɛŋ paae kɔbisyiꞌ (150 paae 200 °C) ka lin mugusid taaba siꞌem mɔr paŋi gat tʋsir nɛ kɔbisnuꞌ (1500 bars).[17] nwaꞌ maan siꞌem yinne an linɛ buon continental plates yaꞌa tʋꞌʋs taaba.[18]  Metamorphic rocks la diꞌe paalʋ siꞌa crust la ni anɛ pisi nɛ ayɔpɔi, nɛ pʋdigir anaasi, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (27.4%).[12]

Metamorphic rock mɛ mɔri li buudi zinꞌis atanꞌ, ka ba gɔsid nɛ lin maal siꞌem-siꞌem bakidi ba. Magma tʋʋlig yaꞌa nwɛꞌɛ tampiins ka ba tɔꞌɔŋ taaba maan nɛ contact metamorphism—ka lin anɛ tʋʋlig la zuꞌoe. Pressure metamorphism maan siꞌem an kugbaanlig yaꞌa kpɛꞌɛ tɛŋ la pʋʋg sa; tɛbisim paŋi zuꞌoe, ka tʋʋlig tʋʋma lɛɛ pʋ zuꞌoe kpala. Ba buon nwaꞌ ye Burial metamorphism, ka lin maan tampiins siꞌeba an jade. Anina ka tʋʋlig nyɛligir nɛ tɛbisim paŋ paasidi sʋŋid, ka ba buon nwaꞌ ye Regional metamorphism. Nwaꞌ titaꞌam bɛnɛ zuoya zinꞌisin.[6]

Metamorphic rocks pʋdig nɛ zinꞌis ayiꞌ, kati waꞌae ba labisim an siꞌem. Banɛ kaꞌ saalig la ba buoni ba ye foliated; ka banɛ kpɛlim la mɛ an non-foliated. Tampiing la yʋꞌʋr yitnɛ laꞌad banɛ laꞌasi maal tampiing la ni na. Schists anɛ foliated rocks ka laꞌad banɛ maali ba an lamellar minerals wan wʋʋ micas. Gneiss bʋʋdi la mɔr nindaas kɔnꞌɔb-kɔnꞌɔb, ka li yinne an granite gneiss. Foliated rock la siꞌeba an slates, phyllites, nɛ mylonite. Wala nɔɔ ka non-foliated metamorphic rocks siꞌeba mɛ an marble, soapstone, nɛ serpentine. Bama mɔr quartzite li ni—lin anɛ sandstone—nɛ hornfels yaꞌa kilim metamorphic rock.[6]

Ninsaalib tʋʋma

[dɛmisim gbɛlima | dɛmisimi din yi zin'isiana]

Tampiing tʋʋma da paꞌal nɛ nidib itima nɛ ba malima nɛ yaꞌam zamisig kanɛ ka ninsaalib banɛ da bɛ kʋdimin da paam. Ninsaalib nɛ hominids bɛdigʋ da pinꞌili mɔr tampiins nɛ kuga tʋm ka li yʋʋg hali wʋʋ yʋʋma 2.5 million banɛ gaad la.[19] Lithic technology paꞌal yaꞌam banɛ ka ninsaalib da mɔr kʋdimin sa ka kpɛm mɔri tʋm. Ninsaalib nɔbigir pʋʋgin yinnɛ an ban da bʋarid tampiins la iied kugsiꞌeba li pʋʋgin la, ka ba nan kpɛn tʋm tʋʋm kaŋa nwaꞌ ka li nɔbig zinꞌis kɔnꞌɔb-kɔnꞌɔ, ka bɔɔd kʋnt nam kɔnꞌɔb-kɔnꞌɔ, bɔzugɔ, tɛŋ wʋsa nɛ ban mɔr kʋnt siꞌa.

Anthropic rock

Anthropic rock anɛ tampiing kanɛ ka ninsaalib maal. Concrete anɛ yinne dinɛ ninsaal maali yinɛ kuga ka ba nɔki laꞌas taaba ka di da pinꞌil nɛ Ancient Rome saŋa.[20] Ba tiꞌasid kuga an siꞌem ka di anɛ ba paasidi siꞌelnami li ni, li siꞌeba an epoxy granite. [21]Ninsaali maal kugsiꞌeba yʋꞌʋn bɛ, ba yinne an Coade stone.[22] Geologist James R. Underwood yel ye tampiins banɛ ka saalib maal la paasid nɛ bʋʋdi anaasi, igneous, sedimentary, nɛ metamorphic yaꞌa yi.[23]

Mɛɛb

Tampiins paŋ pʋ zɛm taaba, lin yi quartzites linɛ kpiꞌɛmi tʋʋg 300 MPa[24] paae sedimentary rock banɛ bʋgis ka fʋ na nyaŋi nwɛdig nɛ nʋꞌʋbibis (di pʋ kpiꞌɛma).[25] (fʋ yaꞌa ye fʋ maki ba, kuga banɛ mɔri maan mɛɛb laꞌad kpiꞌɛŋ bɛn anɛ 350 MPa.[26]) ka li paꞌal ye ba pʋ kpiꞌɛma, ba da pinꞌili waꞌad sedimentary rock la mɛɛd yaꞌ nɛ yʋʋma tusa anaasi (4000 BCE) Egypt tɛŋin,[27] ba da mɔr kuga mɛɛd zanguom guꞌuda bɛ Inner Mongolia nɛ yʋʋm tusayi, nɛ kɔbisnii (2800 BCE) la ni.[28] kuga bɛɛ tampiins banɛ bʋgis, ka ba buon tuff, titaꞌam bɛ nɛ Italy, ka Romans dim mɛ mɔri li mɛɛd yaꞌ nɛ birig nam.[29] Ba da mɔr Limestone bɛdigʋ tʋm mɛɛb tʋʋma Middle Ages saŋa bɛ Europe [30] ka li nan nyɛ yʋꞌʋr hali 20th century.[31]

Tɛŋ tʋʋb

Tɛŋ tʋʋb anɛ ban na yis minerals bɛɛ kʋnt siꞌeba tɛngbaŋ pʋʋgin, yinɛ ore, vein bɛɛ seam ni.[32] Titanbiꞌisi yisib mɛ paasi li pʋʋgin. Kʋntnam banɛ ka ba bɔɔd la siꞌeba an base metals, precious metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil shale, rock salt, potash, construction aggregate nɛ dimension stone. Laꞌad banɛ ka ba kʋ nyaŋi kʋꞌa paam la, ba tuud nɛ tɛŋin paamid, bɛɛ ninsaal mɛŋ maal laꞌad maalig zinꞌig. Ba tʋʋd tɛŋ la yisit laꞌad siꞌeba (wʋʋ petroleum, natural gas, yaarim bɛɛ kuom) yisid tɛŋin la.[33]

Ba da tuud tɛŋ la bɔɔd tampiins nɛ kug siꞌeba hali ka gbana nan kae. Kʋntnam la bɔɔb zina nwaꞌ, ba yʋꞌʋn ɛɛnti gɔs nɛ baŋ ban bɛ zinꞌig siꞌeba, ba baŋi li nyɔɔd bɛn, ba yaꞌa ye ba tʋʋ li, ka pinꞌili tʋ tɛŋ la yisi ba, ka li naar an ye ba maal tɛŋ la lɛbis ka ba nyaŋi nɔki tʋm tʋʋm siꞌeba.[34]

Tɛŋ tuub la tɔnꞌoe mɔr yɛlbɛꞌɛd siꞌeba kɛnꞌ tɛŋgbaŋ zug na li tuub la saŋa, nɛ yʋʋma banɛ bɛ tuoni kɛnna la. Yɛlbɛꞌɛd bama kɛ ka tɛns bɛdigʋ gbanꞌae wada bɛdigʋ ye ba guꞌoe yɛlbɛꞌɛd banɛ dɔl tɛŋ la tuub la.[35]

Tʋʋm laꞌad

Ninsaalib nɛ ba nwɛnnim da mɔr kuga ka li an ba tʋʋma laꞌad yʋʋma million nam banɛ gaad la. Stone Age da anɛ saŋa kanɛ ka ba tʋʋma laꞌad bɛdigʋ da an kuga.[36] Stone Age pinꞌilig la kuga laꞌad la da anɛ bʋn zaꞌada nɛ linɛ ka ba maali mɔri wanꞌad. Stone Age tɛnsʋk la, ba da maal tʋʋma laꞌad banɛ dit ka pʋlim wan wʋʋ kpana nɛ tiraad. Stone Age naar saŋa la, ba da maal tʋʋma laꞌad nam kɔnꞌɔb-kɔnꞌɔb nɛ malima laꞌad kɔnꞌɔb-kɔnꞌɔb.[37] kuga laꞌad da kɛna gaad ka copper nɛ bronze laꞌad kɛna diꞌe metallurgy saŋa la.

Gbanvɛɛnsa

[dɛmisim gbɛlima | dɛmisimi din yi zin'isiana]
  1. ↑ Haldar, S. K. (2013). "Introduction". Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology. Elsevier Science. pp. 1–37. ISBN 9780124167100.
  2. ↑ O'Hara, Kieran D. (2018). "The Structure of Geological Revolutions". A Brief History of Geology (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 247–259. doi:10.1017/9781316809990.013. ISBN 978-1-316-80999-0.
  3. ↑ Nesse, William D. (2000). Introduction to mineralogy. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195106916.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996). Petrology (2nd ed.). W.H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-2438-4.
  5. ↑ Heinen, Wouter; Oehler, John H. (1979). "Evolutionary Aspects of Biological Involvement in the Cycling of Silica". In Trudinger, P.A.; Swaine, D.J. (eds.). Biogeochemical Cycling of Mineral-Forming Elements. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 431. ISBN 9780080874623. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Wilson, James Robert (1995), A collector's guide to rock, mineral & fossil localities of Utah, Utah Geological Survey, pp. 1–22, ISBN 978-1-55791-336-4, archived from the original on 19 November 2016.
  7. ↑ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Flett, John Smith (1911). "Petrology". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 327.
  8. ↑ ""igneous, adj."". OED Online. Oxford University Press. March 2021. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  9. ↑ Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009). Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521880060.
  10. ↑ Le Maitre, R. W.; Streckeisen, A.; Zanettin, B.; Le Bas, M. J.; Bonin, B.; Bateman, P.; Bellieni, G.; Dudek, A.; Efremova, S.; Keller, J.; Lamere, J.; Sabine, P. A.; Schmid, R.; Sorensen, H.; Woolley, A. R., eds. (2002). Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms, Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences, Subcommission of the Systematics of Igneous Rocks (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66215-X.
  11. ↑ Condie, Kent C. (2015). Plate Tectonics & Crustal Evolution (2nd ed.). New York: Pergamon. p. 68. ISBN 9781483100142. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  12. 1 2 3 Bucher, Kurt; Grapes, Rodney (2011), Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 23–24, ISBN 978-3-540-74168-8, archived from the original on 19 November 2016.
  13. ↑ Gilluly, James (1959). Principles of Geology. W.H. Freeman.
  14. ↑ Boggs, Sam (2006). Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131547283.
  15. ↑ Monroe, James S.; Wicander, Reed (2008). The Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. p. 438. ISBN 9780495554806. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  16. ↑ Blott, Simon J.; Pye, Kenneth (2012). "Particle size scales and classification of sediment types based on particle size distributions: Review and recommended procedures". Sedimentology. 59 (7): 2071–2096. Bibcode:2012Sedim..59.2071B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2012.01335.x. ISSN 0037-0746. S2CID 130084299.
  17. ↑ Blatt, Harvey and Robert J. Tracy, Petrology, W.H.Freeman, 2nd ed., 1996, p. 355 ISBN 0-7167-2438-3
  18. ↑ Lillie, Robert J. (2005). Parks and plates : the geology of our national parks, monuments, and seashores (1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0393924076.
  19. ↑ William Haviland, Dana Walrath, Harald Prins, Bunny McBride, Evolution and Prehistory: The Human Challenge, p. 166
  20. ↑ Fookes, Peter G.; Walker, Mike J. (2010). "Concrete: a man-made rock?". Geology Today. 26 (2): 65–71. Bibcode:2010GeolT..26...65F. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2451.2010.00748.x. S2CID 129456840.
  21. ↑ McKeown, P.A.; Morgan, G.H. (1979). "Epoxy granite: a structural material for precision machines". Precision Engineering. 1 (4): 227–229. doi:10.1016/0141-6359(79)90104-1.
  22. ↑ Freestone, Ian (1 January 1991). "Forgotten but not lost: the secret of Coade Stone". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 102 (2): 135–138. Bibcode:1991PrGA..102..135F. doi:10.1016/S0016-7878(08)80072-7. ISSN 0016-7878.
  23. ↑ Underwood, James R. (1 February 2001). "Anthropic rocks as a fourth basic class". Environmental and Engineering Geoscience. 7 (1): 104–110. Bibcode:2001EEGeo...7..104U. doi:10.2113/gseegeosci.7.1.104. ISSN 1078-7275.
  24. ↑ Amadei, B. "Strength properties of rocks and rock masses" (PDF). Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering. University of Colorado Boulder. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
  25. ↑ Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Friable". Glossary of geology (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. ISBN 0922152349.
  26. ↑ Bjorhovde, Reidar (2004). "Development and use of high performance steel". Journal of Constructional Steel Research. 60 (3–5): 393–400. doi:10.1016/S0143-974X(03)00118-4.
  27. ↑ Klemm, Dietrich D.; Klemm, Rosemarie (2001). "The building stones of ancient Egypt – a gift of its geology". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 33 (3–4): 631–642. Bibcode:2001JAfES..33..631K. doi:10.1016/S0899-5362(01)00085-9.
  28. ↑ Shelach, Gideon; Raphael, Kate; Jaffe, Yitzhak (2011). "Sanzuodian: the structure, function and social significance of the earliest stone fortified sites in China". Antiquity. 85 (327): 11–26. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00067405. S2CID 163488276.
  29. ↑ Jackson, M. D.; Marra, F.; Hay, R. L.; Cawood, C.; Winkler, E. M. (2005). "The Judicious Selection and Preservation of Tuff and Travertine Building Stone in Ancient Rome*". Archaeometry. 47 (3): 485–510. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2005.00215.x.
  30. ↑ Ashurst, John; Dimes, Francis G. (1998). Conservation of building and decorative stone. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-7506-3898-2.
  31. ↑ "Welcome to the Limestone City". Archived from the original on 20 February 2008. Retrieved 13 February 2008.
  32. ↑ Gajul, Shekhar (28 July 2018). "Underground Mining Equipment Market 2017 Global Key Players, Share, Challenges, Industry Size, Growth Opportunities & Forecast To 2021". Journalist Book. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
  33. ↑ Botin, J.A., ed. (2009). Sustainable Management of Mining Operations. Denver, CO: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. ISBN 978-0-87335-267-3.
  34. ↑ Wilson, Arthur (1996). The Living Rock: The Story of Metals Since Earliest Times and Their Impact on Developing Civilization. Cambridge, England: Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85573-301-5.
  35. ↑ Terrascope. "Environmental Risks of Mining". The Future of strategic Natural Resources. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 20 September 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2014.
  36. ↑ "Oldest tool use and meat-eating revealed | Natural History Museum". 18 August 2010. Archived from the original on 18 August 2010.
  37. ↑ "Stone Tools". The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program. Smithsonian Institution. 29 June 2022. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
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