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Tampiig

Paasim tɔ'ɔŋir suoya
Di yinɛ Wikipiidia
rock
rock formation
Subclass ofnatural material, aggregate Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Made from materialrock forming minerals Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Studied inpetrology Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Has characteristicchemical composition, texture, permeability Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Opposite ofsoil Dɛmisim gbɛlima

Zamis kanɛ gɔsid dunia la’ad nɛ kuga yɛl la pa’al ye, tampiins (bɛɛ kuga) anɛ dinɛ ka Wina’am maal ka li anɛ la’abanɛ mɔr tɛbisim ka kpi'em ka ba buon minerals bɛɛ mineraloid la ya’a la’as taaba. Tampiis bɛ kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb ka li anɛ la’ad banɛ la’asi kilimi di la ka ba nɔkidi baŋi di li, nɛ din gɛndig si'em, nɛ din kilim si'em-si'em. Tampiins paas nɛ teŋgbaŋ la’ad banɛ ka sɔ’ na nyaŋi gban’e nɛ nu’us, ka ba buon crust la, nɛ di pʋʋgin, ka di yi’iŋ gbɛɛsim nɛ tampiing kanɛ nyɛligidi bɛ tɛŋ tɛŋir asthenosphere pʋʋgin. Tampiis zamisig yɛla mɔr zamisbibisi di pʋʋgin, ba sieba an petrology nɛ mineralogy. Di tun’e gɔsidnɛ tampiins banɛ bɛ teŋgbaŋ zug bɛɛ di tun’e an planetary geology dinɛ ka ba zamisid tampiins nɛ la’ad banɛ bɛi pɛbisim zug.

Tampiis mɔr kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb atan’: igneous tampiis, sedimentary tampiis nɛ metamorphic tampiis. Igneous rock la maan si'em an tampintʋʋla bɛɛ magma ya’a ma’ae, bɛɛ teŋ la gbinin ya’ la’aŋ bugum dʋ’ agɔl na, ma’ae tɛngbaŋ zug bɛɛ kɔlis pʋʋg. Sedimentary rock la maan si'em yit nɛ kugbaanlig ya’a la’as taaba ka ba buon diagenesis bɛɛ lithification la, din yitnɛ tampiins banɛ pʋn dɛŋi bɛ ya’a bʋas biel-biel, la’as taaba kilim. Metamorphic rock maani yit nɛ tampiis banɛ pʋn bɛ sa, ya’a tʋlig hali ka lɛɛ pʋ nyaŋi nyɛlig wala saa.

Ninsaalib banɛ da bɛ dunia pin'ilugin nɛ kudumin sa la nɔk tampiinsi maal si'elnam hali. Saŋkaŋa ka ba buon kuga yʋʋm la, ka ba da mɔr kuga maan la’ad bɛdigʋ. Ba da mɔr kuga mɛɛd ya’ nɛ mɛɛb banɛ ka ba da mɛɛd wʋsa. Sanlima nɛ kʋnt sieba gaansʋg da pin’ilya ka ba yisit kʋnt nam la yit tampiins la pʋʋgin. Na’asaasɔɔng kɛya ka ba nyaŋi maal la’ad sieba ka ba nwɛn wʋʋ tampiinsnɛ, ka ba yinne an concrete.

zamisig

[dɛmisim gbɛlima | dɛmisimi din yi zin'isiana]

Geology anɛ zamis kanɛ gɔsid dunia nɛ di la’ad yela, ka tampiingi maan si’em mɛ paas anina. Petrology anɛ zamis kanɛ gɔsid tampiins la yi zin’ig sia na. Mineralogy anɛ zamis kanɛ gɔsid la’ad banɛ la’asi kilim tampiing la. Ban zamisid tampiing nɛ dinɛ bɛɛ li pʋʋgin la kɛ ka ba baŋ dunia da pin’il si’em, ninsaali di pin’il si’em, nɛ la’ad maalig nɛ na’asaasɔɔng dinɛ ka ninsaalib yʋ’ʋn mɔr la.[1]

Dunia la’ad zamisig yela nii, tampiins zamisig nɛ ban yi zin’ig si’a na, mɛ paas anina, ba da pin’il tampiing zamisig nɛ 19th century saŋa sa. Plutonism da an zamis kanɛ ka ba da zamisid sankan la, nɛ ban ti vɛn’ɛsi nyɛ radioactive decay yʋʋm tusir, kɔbisnii nɛ piswai nɛ ayʋobʋ (1896) la ni ka ba yʋ’ʋn pin’ili kaanl tampiins yʋʋma. Zamis kanɛ an plate tectonics la da pin’il nɛ 20th century.[2]

Buudi

[dɛmisim gbɛlima | dɛmisimi din yi zin'isiana]

Tampiins yinɛ la’ad banɛ buri-bur, an ban’alig-ban’alig ya’a tʋn fɔɔli la’as taaba nɛ paŋ.[3]  Tampiins si’eba mɔr mineraloids, dinɛ kpi’em, ka wan wʋʋ volcanic glass,[4]  ka lɛɛ pʋ tʋn taaba fɔɔli. La’ad banɛ bɛ tampiing ni la zuoe zɛm si’em an yine tampiing la maal si’em.

Tampiins bɛdigʋ mɔr silicate minerals, dinɛ ka silica tetrahedra paasi di pʋʋgin wan crystal lattice, ka mɛ len mɔr la’ad la yinne, pʋdigir atan’ pʋʋgin nɛ earth's crust kɔbiga pʋʋgin, piswai nɛ anu (95%).[5] Dinɛ an silica bɛ tampiing ni la nɛ la’ad banɛ bɛ di pʋʋgin pa’an tampiing la yʋ’ʋr nɛ din an si’em.[6]

Tampiins mɔr buudi-buudi ka di yinɛ la’ad banɛ bɛ li pʋʋgin la an si’em, pɛbisim bɛɛ kuom na nyaŋi kpɛ’ɛ di pʋʋgin, din saalim si’em bɛn, nɛ di labisim zɛm si’em. Yɛlbama pa’anɛ tampiing la dɔlis suor si’a maal.[4] Yʋʋma zuligid la, tampiins na nyaŋi ti’ak buudi yinne lɛb buudi yinne dinɛ ka banɛ zamis buon ye rock cycle. Ti’asik kaŋa kɛ ka tampiins buudi atan’ la bɛ: igneous, sedimentary nɛ metamorphic.

Buudi atan’ bama pʋdig nɛ zin’is bɛdigʋ ya’as. Tampiins nwa’ ɛɛnti la’as taabaa la anɛ yinne. La’ad banɛ maali ba la ya’a na paas bɛɛ si’e, ba ɛɛnti tiak nɛ yi buudi yinne kilim buudi yinne; tampiing yinne wʋsa bɛ di kɔn’ ka sɔ’ na nyaŋi baki li nɛ li taaba, ka la’asidi ti’asidi kilimid buudi si’a. Linzugɔ, tampiing wʋsa nyɛ o yʋ’ʋr siem yinɛ lin maal bi’el-bi’el si’em kilimi li.[7]

Igneous rock

Igneous rock (linɛ yi Latin sɔb igneus ni, ka di gbin an bugum, yit ignis ka di gbin an bugum)[8] maan si’em anɛ dinɛ ka ba buon lava bɛɛ magma, kuga ya’a tʋligi nyɛligi la’as taaba ka lɛbi kʋdigi gban’ae taaba. Magma la yinɛ tampiing kanɛ pʋn bɛ sa’ ya’a nyɛligi bɛ tɛngbaŋ la pʋʋg, ka ba buon mantle bɛɛ crust la. Tampiing nyɛligir yitnɛ yela atan’ bama yinne nina: tʋʋligi na nɔbigid, la’ad banɛ muk taaba kugur la pʋʋk la tɛbisim nɛ li paŋ ya’a si’e, bɛɛ ba vurugnɛ tiak zin’ig.[9]

Igneous rocks pʋdig nɛ zin’is ayi’:

·        Plutonic bɛɛ intrusive maanɛ yit magma ya’a ma’ae ka la’as taaba tɛngbaŋ zug. Di titʋʋli yinne an granite.

·        Volcanic bɛɛ extrusive rocks yitnɛ magma dinɛ la’asid taaba la ya’a an lava bɛɛ fragmental ejecta, ka la’asi kilim pumice bɛɛ basalt.[4]

Magma mɔr silica bɛdigʋ, di ya’ dʋt tɛngbaŋ zug, ka ba buoni li ye magma differentiation. Nwa’ maan ka li yinɛ minerals la ya’a pʋ mɔr silica bɛdigʋ ka li yiti di pʋʋgin naa, di ya’a ɛɛnti pin’ili ma’aed la (Bowen's reaction series), nɛ magma la nyɛligid crustal rock si’eba banɛ ka di dɔlli bani gat la (country rock), ka crustal rock mɛ mɔr silica bɛdigʋ. Silica anɛ linɛ an yɛlkpan ka ba nɔkidi baŋid igneous rock buudi la.[6] ka dinɛ lɛn paas an alkali metal oxides ka mɛ an nimmua laʋk.[10]

Igneous rocks la faan’ɛ paalʋ si’a Earth's crust pʋʋgin anɛ kɔbiga pʋʋgin, pisyʋobʋ nɛ anu’ (65%). Nwa’ pʋʋgin, pʋdigir pisyʋobʋ nɛ ayʋobʋ, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (66%) anɛ basalt nɛ gabbro, kɔbiga pʋʋgin, piinɛ ayʋobʋ (16%) anɛ granite, ka piinɛ ayɔpɔi, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (17%) an granodiorite nɛ diorite. 0.6% ma’a an syenite ka 0.3% mɛ an ultramafic. Oceanic crust la mɛ mɔr piswai nɛ awai, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (99%) an basalt, dinɛ an igneous rock, ka mafic bɛɛ li pʋʋgin. Granite nɛ li wannim, ka ba buon granitoids, n faan’e zin’ig continental crust ni.[11][12]

Sedimentary rock

Sedimentary rocks la maan si’em tɛngbaŋ zug anɛ tampiins banɛ pʋn bɛ ya, nɛ minerals, nɛ bʋnvʋlsi’eba[13] ya’a la’as taaba naalim ka ba sieba mɛ gbilim ka si’eba mɛ la’as kɔlis gbina ni. Nwa’ kɛt ka clastic sediments (kug baan’lig) bɛɛ mɔɔd nɛ bʋnvʋlsi’eba (detritus) la’asid taaba gan’alim, ka pɛbisim kanɛ bɛ li pʋʋgin la yi ka basi li. Di na tʋʋns taaba ka tʋʋlig bi’ela mɛ kpɛn’ɛ li tɛnsʋk ka li la’as taaba (diagenesis). [4][14]

Tampiins banɛ pʋn bɛ sa ɛɛnti buri-bur, ka di anɛ kuom zii li kɛn ka di nwɛ’ɛd taaba la yela, ka kuom bɛɛ sisiem bɛɛ ice la’asiba zii kɛŋ la’asi ba taaba zin’i si’eba. [4]Sedimentary rocks  la di’e paalʋ si’a crust la pʋʋgin anɛ ayɔpɔi nɛ li pʋdigir awai, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (7.9%), ka pisnii nɛ ayi, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (82%) an shales, ka ayʋobʋ, pʋdigid kɔbiga pʋʋgin (6%) an limestone, ka piinɛ ayi, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (12%) an sandstone nɛ arkoses.[12] Sedimentary rocks mɔr fossils li pʋʋgi. Sedimentary rocks la maan si’em yitnɛ diinlig bɛɛ tɛbisim pʋʋgin, ka pa’ae pa’ae nɛ taaba zug nɛ fɔɔli, ka ba lɛn buoni ba ye stratified rocks.[15]

Sedimentary rocks banɛ nwa’asi la’as taaba mɛ mɔr bʋʋdi-bʋʋdi ka ba gɔsid nɛ ba labisim zɛm si’em bɛn. Ban ɛɛnti buri-bur la, dinɛ pɔɔdi gat anɛ ya’ad bʋʋlig, ka linɛ dɔl an tanbiins baanlig, tintanbiinsig nɛ zigi. Si’eba mɔr cobbles nɛ boulders makidi gɔsid.[16]

Metamorphic rock

Metamorphic rocks la maan si’em anɛ tampiins buudi—sedimentary rock, igneous rock bɛɛ metamorphic rock kʋda banɛ pʋn bɛ sa—ya’a mugus taaba ka tʋlig, ka li tʋʋlim la mɔr paŋi gat tʋʋlig kanɛ da maal tampiins ban buudi la. Ba buon nwa’ ye metamorphism, ka di gbin an "lin na ti’aki li aansim". Li kɛt ka kuga nwa nindaa ti’akid ka len ka’ din daa an si’em ya’asɛ. Tampiing kanɛ tiaki kili o la, ba buon ye protolith, ti’akidi kilimid la’ad si’eba kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb bɛɛ dɔlisid din ɛɛnti nyɛlig la ni.[4] Tʋʋlig kanɛ maan nwa’ la mɔr paŋi gat tʋʋlig kanɛ bɛ tɛngbaŋ zug: tʋʋlig la gat kɔbiga nɛ pisnu kɛŋ paae kɔbisyi’ (150 paae 200 °C) ka lin mugusid taaba si’em mɔr paŋi gat tʋsir nɛ kɔbisnu’ (1500 bars).[17] nwa’ maan si’em yinne an linɛ buon continental plates ya’a tʋ’ʋs taaba.[18]  Metamorphic rocks la di’e paalʋ si’a crust la ni anɛ pisi nɛ ayɔpɔi, nɛ pʋdigir anaasi, kɔbiga pʋʋgin (27.4%).[12]

Metamorphic rock mɛ mɔri li buudi zin’is atan’, ka ba gɔsid nɛ lin maal si’em-si’em bakidi ba. Magma tʋʋlig ya’a nwɛ’ɛ tampiins ka ba tɔ’ɔŋ taaba maan nɛ contact metamorphism—ka lin anɛ tʋʋlig la zu’oe. Pressure metamorphism maan si’em an kugbaanlig ya’a kpɛ’ɛ tɛŋ la pʋʋg sa; tɛbisim paŋi zu’oe, ka tʋʋlig tʋʋma lɛɛ pʋ zu’oe kpala. Ba buon nwa’ ye Burial metamorphism, ka lin maan tampiins si’eba an jade. Anina ka tʋʋlig nyɛligir nɛ tɛbisim paŋ paasidi sʋŋid, ka ba buon nwa’ ye Regional metamorphism. Nwa’ tita’am bɛnɛ zuoya zin’isin.[6]

Metamorphic rocks pʋdig nɛ zin’is ayi’, kati wa’ae ba labisim an si’em. Banɛ ka’ saalig la ba buoni ba ye foliated; ka banɛ kpɛlim la mɛ an non-foliated. Tampiing la yʋ’ʋr yitnɛ la’ad banɛ la’asi maal tampiing la ni na. Schists anɛ foliated rocks ka la’ad banɛ maali ba an lamellar minerals wan wʋʋ micas. Gneiss bʋʋdi la mɔr nindaas kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb, ka li yinne an granite gneiss. Foliated rock la si’eba an slates, phyllites, nɛ mylonite. Wala nɔɔ ka non-foliated metamorphic rocks si’eba mɛ an marble, soapstone, nɛ serpentine. Bama mɔr quartzite li ni—lin anɛ sandstone—nɛ hornfels ya’a kilim metamorphic rock.[6]

Ninsaalib tʋʋma

[dɛmisim gbɛlima | dɛmisimi din yi zin'isiana]

Tampiing tʋʋma da pa’al nɛ nidib itima nɛ ba malima nɛ ya’am zamisig kanɛ ka ninsaalib banɛ da bɛ kʋdimin da paam. Ninsaalib nɛ hominids bɛdigʋ da pin’ili mɔr tampiins nɛ kuga tʋm ka li yʋʋg hali wʋʋ yʋʋma 2.5 million banɛ gaad la.[19] Lithic technology pa’al ya’am banɛ ka ninsaalib da mɔr kʋdimin sa ka kpɛm mɔri tʋm. Ninsaalib nɔbigir pʋʋgin yinnɛ an ban da bʋarid tampiins la iied kugsi’eba li pʋʋgin la, ka ba nan kpɛn tʋm tʋʋm kaŋa nwa’ ka li nɔbig zin’is kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔ, ka bɔɔd kʋnt nam kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔ, bɔzugɔ, tɛŋ wʋsa nɛ ban mɔr kʋnt si’a.

Anthropic rock

Anthropic rock anɛ tampiing kanɛ ka ninsaalib maal. Concrete anɛ yinne dinɛ ninsaal maali yinɛ kuga ka ba nɔki la’as taaba ka di da pin’il nɛ Ancient Rome saŋa.[20] Ba ti’asid kuga an si’em ka di anɛ ba paasidi si’elnami li ni, li si’eba an epoxy granite. [21]Ninsaali maal kugsi’eba yʋ’ʋn bɛ, ba yinne an Coade stone.[22] Geologist James R. Underwood yel ye tampiins banɛ ka saalib maal la paasid nɛ bʋʋdi anaasi, igneous, sedimentary, nɛ metamorphic ya’a yi.[23]

Mɛɛb

Tampiins paŋ pʋ zɛm taaba, lin yi quartzites linɛ kpi’ɛmi tʋʋg 300 MPa[24] paae sedimentary rock banɛ bʋgis ka fʋ na nyaŋi nwɛdig nɛ nʋ’ʋbibis (di pʋ kpi’ɛma).[25] (fʋ ya’a ye fʋ maki ba, kuga banɛ mɔri maan mɛɛb la’ad kpi’ɛŋ bɛn anɛ 350 MPa.[26]) ka li pa’al ye ba pʋ kpi’ɛma, ba da pin’ili wa’ad sedimentary rock la mɛɛd ya’ nɛ yʋʋma tusa anaasi (4000 BCE) Egypt tɛŋin,[27] ba da mɔr kuga mɛɛd zanguom gu’uda bɛ Inner Mongolia nɛ yʋʋm tusayi, nɛ kɔbisnii (2800 BCE) la ni.[28] kuga bɛɛ tampiins banɛ bʋgis, ka ba buon tuff, tita’am bɛ nɛ Italy, ka Romans dim mɛ mɔri li mɛɛd ya’ nɛ birig nam.[29] Ba da mɔr Limestone bɛdigʋ tʋm mɛɛb tʋʋma Middle Ages saŋa bɛ Europe [30] ka li nan nyɛ yʋ’ʋr hali 20th century.[31]

Tɛŋ tʋʋb

Tɛŋ tʋʋb anɛ ban na yis minerals bɛɛ kʋnt si’eba tɛngbaŋ pʋʋgin, yinɛ ore, vein bɛɛ seam ni.[32] Titanbi’isi yisib mɛ paasi li pʋʋgin. Kʋntnam banɛ ka ba bɔɔd la si’eba an base metals, precious metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil shale, rock salt, potash, construction aggregate nɛ dimension stone. La’ad banɛ ka ba kʋ nyaŋi kʋ’a paam la, ba tuud nɛ tɛŋin paamid, bɛɛ ninsaal mɛŋ maal la’ad maalig zin’ig. Ba tʋʋd tɛŋ la yisit la’ad si’eba (wʋʋ petroleum, natural gas, yaarim bɛɛ kuom) yisid tɛŋin la.[33]

Ba da tuud tɛŋ la bɔɔd tampiins nɛ kug si’eba hali ka gbana nan kae. Kʋntnam la bɔɔb zina nwa’, ba yʋ’ʋn ɛɛnti gɔs nɛ baŋ ban bɛ zin’ig si’eba, ba baŋi li nyɔɔd bɛn, ba ya’a ye ba tʋʋ li, ka pin’ili tʋ tɛŋ la yisi ba, ka li naar an ye ba maal tɛŋ la lɛbis ka ba nyaŋi nɔki tʋm tʋʋm si’eba.[34]

Tɛŋ tuub la tɔn’oe mɔr yɛlbɛ’ɛd si’eba kɛn’ tɛŋgbaŋ zug na li tuub la saŋa, nɛ yʋʋma banɛ bɛ tuoni kɛnna la. Yɛlbɛ’ɛd bama kɛ ka tɛns bɛdigʋ gban’ae wada bɛdigʋ ye ba gu’oe yɛlbɛ’ɛd banɛ dɔl tɛŋ la tuub la.[35]

Tʋʋm la’ad

Ninsaalib nɛ ba nwɛnnim da mɔr kuga ka li an ba tʋʋma la’ad yʋʋma million nam banɛ gaad la. Stone Age da anɛ saŋa kanɛ ka ba tʋʋma la’ad bɛdigʋ da an kuga.[36] Stone Age pin’ilig la kuga la’ad la da anɛ bʋn za’ada nɛ linɛ ka ba maali mɔri wan’ad. Stone Age tɛnsʋk la, ba da maal tʋʋma la’ad banɛ dit ka pʋlim wan wʋʋ kpana nɛ tiraad. Stone Age naar saŋa la, ba da maal tʋʋma la’ad nam kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb nɛ malima la’ad kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb.[37] kuga la’ad da kɛna gaad ka copper nɛ bronze la’ad kɛna di’e metallurgy saŋa la.

Gbanvεεnsa

[dɛmisim gbɛlima | dɛmisimi din yi zin'isiana]
  1. ↑ Haldar, S. K. (2013). "Introduction". Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology. Elsevier Science. pp. 1–37. ISBN 9780124167100.
  2. ↑ O'Hara, Kieran D. (2018). "The Structure of Geological Revolutions". A Brief History of Geology (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 247–259. doi:10.1017/9781316809990.013. ISBN 978-1-316-80999-0.
  3. ↑ Nesse, William D. (2000). Introduction to mineralogy. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195106916.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996). Petrology (2nd ed.). W.H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-2438-4.
  5. ↑ Heinen, Wouter; Oehler, John H. (1979). "Evolutionary Aspects of Biological Involvement in the Cycling of Silica". In Trudinger, P.A.; Swaine, D.J. (eds.). Biogeochemical Cycling of Mineral-Forming Elements. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 431. ISBN 9780080874623. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Wilson, James Robert (1995), A collector's guide to rock, mineral & fossil localities of Utah, Utah Geological Survey, pp. 1–22, ISBN 978-1-55791-336-4, archived from the original on 19 November 2016.
  7. ↑ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Flett, John Smith (1911). "Petrology". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 327.
  8. ↑ ""igneous, adj."". OED Online. Oxford University Press. March 2021. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  9. ↑ Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009). Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521880060.
  10. ↑ Le Maitre, R. W.; Streckeisen, A.; Zanettin, B.; Le Bas, M. J.; Bonin, B.; Bateman, P.; Bellieni, G.; Dudek, A.; Efremova, S.; Keller, J.; Lamere, J.; Sabine, P. A.; Schmid, R.; Sorensen, H.; Woolley, A. R., eds. (2002). Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms, Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences, Subcommission of the Systematics of Igneous Rocks (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66215-X.
  11. ↑ Condie, Kent C. (2015). Plate Tectonics & Crustal Evolution (2nd ed.). New York: Pergamon. p. 68. ISBN 9781483100142. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Bucher, Kurt; Grapes, Rodney (2011), Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 23–24, ISBN 978-3-540-74168-8, archived from the original on 19 November 2016.
  13. ↑ Gilluly, James (1959). Principles of Geology. W.H. Freeman.
  14. ↑ Boggs, Sam (2006). Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131547283.
  15. ↑ Monroe, James S.; Wicander, Reed (2008). The Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. p. 438. ISBN 9780495554806. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  16. ↑ Blott, Simon J.; Pye, Kenneth (2012). "Particle size scales and classification of sediment types based on particle size distributions: Review and recommended procedures". Sedimentology. 59 (7): 2071–2096. Bibcode:2012Sedim..59.2071B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2012.01335.x. ISSN 0037-0746. S2CID 130084299.
  17. ↑ Blatt, Harvey and Robert J. Tracy, Petrology, W.H.Freeman, 2nd ed., 1996, p. 355 ISBN 0-7167-2438-3
  18. ↑ Lillie, Robert J. (2005). Parks and plates : the geology of our national parks, monuments, and seashores (1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0393924076.
  19. ↑ William Haviland, Dana Walrath, Harald Prins, Bunny McBride, Evolution and Prehistory: The Human Challenge, p. 166
  20. ↑ Fookes, Peter G.; Walker, Mike J. (2010). "Concrete: a man-made rock?". Geology Today. 26 (2): 65–71. Bibcode:2010GeolT..26...65F. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2451.2010.00748.x. S2CID 129456840.
  21. ↑ McKeown, P.A.; Morgan, G.H. (1979). "Epoxy granite: a structural material for precision machines". Precision Engineering. 1 (4): 227–229. doi:10.1016/0141-6359(79)90104-1.
  22. ↑ Freestone, Ian (1 January 1991). "Forgotten but not lost: the secret of Coade Stone". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 102 (2): 135–138. Bibcode:1991PrGA..102..135F. doi:10.1016/S0016-7878(08)80072-7. ISSN 0016-7878.
  23. ↑ Underwood, James R. (1 February 2001). "Anthropic rocks as a fourth basic class". Environmental and Engineering Geoscience. 7 (1): 104–110. Bibcode:2001EEGeo...7..104U. doi:10.2113/gseegeosci.7.1.104. ISSN 1078-7275.
  24. ↑ Amadei, B. "Strength properties of rocks and rock masses" (PDF). Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering. University of Colorado Boulder. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
  25. ↑ Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Friable". Glossary of geology (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. ISBN 0922152349.
  26. ↑ Bjorhovde, Reidar (2004). "Development and use of high performance steel". Journal of Constructional Steel Research. 60 (3–5): 393–400. doi:10.1016/S0143-974X(03)00118-4.
  27. ↑ Klemm, Dietrich D.; Klemm, Rosemarie (2001). "The building stones of ancient Egypt – a gift of its geology". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 33 (3–4): 631–642. Bibcode:2001JAfES..33..631K. doi:10.1016/S0899-5362(01)00085-9.
  28. ↑ Shelach, Gideon; Raphael, Kate; Jaffe, Yitzhak (2011). "Sanzuodian: the structure, function and social significance of the earliest stone fortified sites in China". Antiquity. 85 (327): 11–26. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00067405. S2CID 163488276.
  29. ↑ Jackson, M. D.; Marra, F.; Hay, R. L.; Cawood, C.; Winkler, E. M. (2005). "The Judicious Selection and Preservation of Tuff and Travertine Building Stone in Ancient Rome*". Archaeometry. 47 (3): 485–510. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2005.00215.x.
  30. ↑ Ashurst, John; Dimes, Francis G. (1998). Conservation of building and decorative stone. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-7506-3898-2.
  31. ↑ "Welcome to the Limestone City". Archived from the original on 20 February 2008. Retrieved 13 February 2008.
  32. ↑ Gajul, Shekhar (28 July 2018). "Underground Mining Equipment Market 2017 Global Key Players, Share, Challenges, Industry Size, Growth Opportunities & Forecast To 2021". Journalist Book. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
  33. ↑ Botin, J.A., ed. (2009). Sustainable Management of Mining Operations. Denver, CO: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. ISBN 978-0-87335-267-3.
  34. ↑ Wilson, Arthur (1996). The Living Rock: The Story of Metals Since Earliest Times and Their Impact on Developing Civilization. Cambridge, England: Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85573-301-5.
  35. ↑ Terrascope. "Environmental Risks of Mining". The Future of strategic Natural Resources. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 20 September 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2014.
  36. ↑ "Oldest tool use and meat-eating revealed | Natural History Museum". 18 August 2010. Archived from the original on 18 August 2010.
  37. ↑ "Stone Tools". The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program. Smithsonian Institution. 29 June 2022. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
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